Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

76. Ibid., pages 60–61. On another occasion, he had eighty men, women and children burned in Strasbourg. See: Moynahan, Op. cit., page 286.

77. In the wheel the prisoner was tied to a cartwheel and beaten. The rack, as is well known, stretched the body to breaking point, a bit like the strappado.

78. Jews offered a different but allied problem. There was a large and prosperous Jewish community in the south of France – Cathar territory – and, as we have seen, there may well have been Jewish ideas mixed up in the genealogy of Catharism. So although Innocent forbade attempts to convert Jews by force, he did advocate ghettoisation – physical separation – which not only limited contact but implied that they were social pariahs. It was at the Fourth Lateran Council, held towards the end of Innocent’s papacy in 1215, that it was decreed the Jews should wear a yellow patch ‘so they could be easily distinguished as outcasts’. See: Cantor, Op. cit., page 426.

79. William Chester Jordan, Europe in the High Middle Ages, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 2001, page 9; and Cantor, Op. cit., pages 418–419. See also as a general reference: Jacques le Goff, The Medieval Imagination, translated by Arthur Goldhammer, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985, especially part 2, section 2, ‘The perception of Christendom by the Roman Curia’ and ‘The organisation of an ecumenical council in 1274’.

80. Knowles and Obolensky, Op. cit., page 290.

81. Cantor, Op. cit., page 491.

82. Canning, Op. cit., pages 137–148.

83. Cantor, Op. cit., page 493.

84. Ibid., page 495. See also: Canning, Op. cit., pages 139–140.

85. Cantor, Op. cit., page 496.

86. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 298ff.

CHAPTER 17: THE SPREAD OF LEARNING AND THE RISE OF ACCURACY

1. Georges Duby, The Age of the Cathedrals, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981, pages 97ff.

2. Ibid., page 98.

3. Ibid.

4. Anders Piltz, The Medieval World of Learning, Oxford: Blackwell, 1981, page 26. See also: Moynahan, Op. cit., page 269, and Le Goff, Op. cit., page 54.

5. Duby, Op. cit., page 100.

6. Ibid., page 101.

7. Ibid., page 111.

8. R. W. S. Southern, ‘The schools of Paris and the schools of Chartres’, in Benson and Constable (editors), Op. cit., page 114.

9. Ibid., page 115.

10. Ibid., pages 124–128.

11. Ibid., page 129.

12. Chester Jordan, Op. cit., page 116. R. W. S. Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages, The Penguin History of the Church, London: Penguin Books, 1970/1990, page 94. See also: Le Goff, Op. cit., page 179, for the concept of civitas in the Middle Ages.

13. Rubenstein, Aristotle’s Children, Op. cit., page 127. See also: Chester Jordan, Op. cit., page 113, and Duby, Op. cit., page 115.

14. Duby, Op. cit., page 115.

15. Ibid., page 116.

16. Alan Cobban, The Medieval Universities, London: Methuen, 1975, page 8.

17. Ibid., page 9.

18. Ibid., page 10.

19. Ibid., page 11.

20. Piltz, Op. cit., page 18.

21. Cobban, Op. cit., page 12.

22. Ibid., page 14.

23. Rubenstein, Op. cit., page 104.

24. Cobban, Op. cit., page 18. Alexander also studied at Montpellier. See: Nathan Schachner, The Medieval Universities, London: Allen & Unwin, 1938, page 263.

25. Ibid., page 15. See Schachner, Op. cit., pages 132–133, for the prosperity of medieval doctors.

26. Rubenstein, Op. cit., page 17.

27. Ibid., page 162.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid., page 186.

30. Ibid., page 187.

31. Ibid., page 42.

32. Ibid., page 210.

33. Ibid., page 197.

34. Ibid., page 198.

35. Ibid., page 220.

36. Ibid., page 221.

37. Cobban, Op. cit., page 22.

38. Ibid., page 23. See also: Schachner, Op. cit., page 62, for the dress requirements.

39. Cobban, Op. cit., pages 23–24.

40. Ibid., page 24.

41. Ibid., page 25.

42. Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (new edition in three volumes), edited by F. M. Powicke and A. B. Emden, Oxford: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1936, volume II, page 22.

43. Ibid., pages 24ff.

44. Cobban, Op. cit., page 31.

45. Ibid., page 37. See Schachner, Op. cit., page 51, for the lame and blind.

46. Chester Jordan, Op. cit., page 125. Cobban, Op. cit., page 41.

47. Olaf Pederson, The First Universities, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pages 122ff.

48. Cobban, Op. cit., page 44.

49. Ibid., page 45.