Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors

The dominant animal—as determined in ritualized or occasionally in earnest combat—is called “alpha” after the first letter of the Greek alphabet. After alpha comes beta, then gamma, delta, zeta, eta … and so on down to omega, the last letter of the Greek alphabet. Most often, alpha lords it over beta, who makes appropriate indications of submission; beta over gamma, gamma over delta, and so on down the hierarchy.* The alpha male might exhibit dominance behavior in the male hierarchy 100% of the time, the omega male or males 0% of the time, with those in between showing intermediate frequencies

Apart from the dubious intrinsic satisfaction of intimidating others, high rank often carries with it certain practical benefits—the privilege of dining first and from the choicest morsels, say, or the right to have sex with whomever strikes your fancy. The most passionate enthusiasts of dominance hierarchies are almost always the males, although loosely parallel female dominance hierarchies occur in many species Males generally dominate all females and all juveniles. Among the comparatively rare species in which females sometimes dominate males are the vervet monkeys, the very same who keep their cool when overcrowded.

While privileged access to desirable females is not the invariable accompaniment of high rank, it is a frequent benefit In a population of mice, the top third of the hierarchy was responsible for 92% of the inseminations. In a study of elephant seals, the bulls in the top 6% of the dominance hierarchy impregnated 88% of the cows.⁶

High-ranking males often work hard to prevent lower-ranking males from inseminating the females. Females sometimes act to incite rivalry among the males.⁷ If the dominant males are going to father almost all the children, then clearly there’s a major selective advantage to being a dominant male. Whatever inherited qualities predispose to accomplishing, maintaining, and enjoying dominance will swiftly be established throughout the population—or at least among the males. Social and individual constitutions will be reconfigured by evolution to this end. Indeed, there seem to be parts of the brain in charge of dominance behavior.

⁸

Promotion in rank does not usually occur because of community social work or fighting off invaders. Promotion comes mainly from combat within the group—mainly ritualized, sometimes real. Darwin clearly understood how natural selection might bring this about:The law of battle for the possession of the female appears to prevail throughout the whole great class of mammals. Most naturalists will admit that the greater size, strength, courage, and pugnacity of the male, his special weapons of offence, as well as his special means of defence, have been acquired or modified through that form of selection which I have called sexual. This does not depend on any superiority in the general struggle for life, but on certain individuals of one sex, generally the males, being successful in conquering other males, and leaving a larger number of offspring to inherit their superiority than do the less successful males.⁹

If you’re a second lieutenant in the hierarchy and wish to be promoted, you challenge your first lieutenant; he would challenge his captain; he his major; and so on, up the ladder. In this respect at least, animal dominance hierarchies and human military hierarchies differ. Perhaps certain dog-eat-dog corporate hierarchies provide a better parallel. In the case of a successful challenge, the two animals sometimes exchange status, silver bars for gold. Animals weakened by disease, injury, or age are generally broken to the ranks.

“This town ain’t big enough for the both of us” isn’t the way dominance hierarchies usually work. Faced with a testy alpha male, you have another option besides fight or flight. You can submit. Almost everybody does. Subordinate males ingratiate themselves to those at the top of the hierarchy through incessant bowing and scraping. From their proximity to power those next in rank tend to gain access to food and to females, the leavings of the alphas. Sometimes dominant males are so busy with their police functions that those lower in the hierarchy can arrange sexual trysts that never would have been permitted had the alphas been less preoccupied. Surreptitious fertilization of females when the alpha male isn’t looking is called “kleptogamy.” “Stolen kisses” has something of the same flavor. So being alpha is only one strategy for males to continue their lines. Being beta or gamma with an inclination for kleptogamy is also a strategy. There are others.