Hannibal: Enemy of Rome

Cisalpine Gaul: the northern area of modern-day Italy, comprising the Po plain and its mountain borders from the Alps to the Apennines. In the third century BC, it was not part of the Republic. consul: one of two annually elected chief magistrates, appointed by the people and ratified by the Senate. Effective rulers of Rome for twelve months, they were in charge of civil and military matters and led the Republic’s armies into war. Each could countermand the other and both were supposed to heed the wishes of the Senate. No man was supposed to serve as consul more than once.

Council of Elders: Carthaginian politics, with its numerous ruling bodies, is very confusing. The Council of Elders was one of the most important, however. Its members were some of the most prominent men in Carthage, and its areas of remit included the treasury and foreign affairs. Another ruling body was the Tribunal of One Hundred and Four. Composed of members of the elite aristocracy, it supervised the conduct of government officials and military leaders; it also acted as a type of higher constitutional court. crucifixion: contrary to popular belief, the Romans did not invent this awful form of execution; in fact, the Carthaginians may well have done so. The practice is first recorded during the Punic Wars. decurion: the cavalry officer in charge of ten men. In later times, the decurion commanded a turma, a unit of about thirty men. didrachm: a silver coin, worth two drachmas, which was one of the main coins in third century BC Italy. Strangely, the Romans did not make coins of their own design until later on. The denarius, which was to become the main coin of the Republic, was not introduced until around 211 BC.

Eshmoun: the Carthaginian god of health and well-being, whose temple was the largest in Carthage. falaricae (sing. falarica): a spear with a pine shaft and a long iron head, at the base of which a ball of pitch and tow was often tied. This created a lethal incendiary weapon, used to great effect by the Saguntines. falcata sword: a lethal, slightly curved weapon with a sharp point used by light Iberian infantry. It was single-edged for the first half to two-thirds of its blade, but the remainder was double-edged. The hilt curved protectively around the hand and back towards the blade; it was often made in the shape of a horse’s head. Apparently, the caetrati who used falcata swords were well able to fight legionaries. fasces: a bundle of rods bound together around an axe. The symbol of justice, it was carried by a lictor, a group of whom walked in front of all senior magistrates. The fasces symbolised the right of the authorities to punish and execute lawbreakers. fides: essentially, good faith. It was regarded as a major quality in Rome. fugitivarius (pl. fugitivarii): slave-catchers, men who made a living from tracking down and capturing runaways. The punishment branding the letter ‘F’ (for fugitivus) on the forehead is documented; so is the wearing of permanent neck chains, which had directions on how to return the slave to their owner.

Genua: modern-day Genoa. gladius (pl. gladii): little information remains about the ‘Spanish’ sword of the Republican army, the gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade. It is not clear when it was adopted by the Romans, but it was probably after encountering the weapon during the First Punic War, when it was used by Celtiberian troops. The shaped hilt was made of bone and protected by a pommel and guard of wood. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. It was actually quite easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned like this to avoid entanglement with the scutum while being unsheathed. gugga: in Plautus’ comedy, Poenulus, one of the Roman characters refers to a Carthaginian trader as a ‘gugga’. This insult can be translated as ‘little rat’. hastati (sing. hastatus): experienced young soldiers who formed the first ranks in the Roman battle line in the third century BC. They were armed with mail or bronze breast and back plates, crested helmets, and scuta. They carried two pila, one light and one heavy, and a gladius hispaniensis. hora secunda, the second hour; hora quarta, the fourth hour; hora undecima, the eleventh hour: Roman time was divided into two periods, that of daylight (twelve hours) and of night-time (eight watches). The first hour of the day, hora prima, started at sunrise.

Iberia: the modern-day Iberian Peninsula, encompassing Spain and Portugal.

Iberus: the River Ebro.